I. Functions of money      A. Medium of exchange: facilitate exchange eliminating barter which requires people           with mutually needs.      B. Standard of value: allows for the pricing of heterogeneous goods.      C. Store of value: maintains value and provides liquidity so extra spending power is           available as needed.      D. Standard of deferred payment: makes credit contracts possible so credit            transactions are possible. II. The supply and demand for money       A. Three categories of the supply of money            1. M1 = Currency, coins, and demand deposits (checking accounts).             2. M2 = M1 plus near monies such as small time deposits (savings                 accounts) and short-term government securities.             3. M3 = M2 plus large time deposits (over $100,000)       B. What backs the dollar?            1. It is a debt of the federal government.            2. Backed by faith in the government's ability to control inflation.            3. Value is determined by acceptability (it is legal tender and scarce).            4. It's fiat (by decree of the government) money.            5. Coins have little intrinsic value (a small % of face value) so they are called                token money.            6. Commodity money such as tobacco used as money in the Virginia colony                has intrinsic value of its own.            7. For more visit Types of money - wiki
C. The Demand for Money            1. Transaction D, Dt, results because people hold money, often in a money market                account, to use as a medium of exchange.           2. Asset Demand, Da, results because people accumulate money, often held in an               investment account, to buy assets.           3. The demand for money Dm= D t + Da           4. Interest rates are set in the money market.            5.  For more information visit Demand for money - Wiki III. Maintaining money's value requires        A. A sound fiscal policy (a reasonable federal debt)        B. A sound monetary policy (not using inflation to pay the federal debt) IV. United States private banking system       A. Two kinds of banks           1. Commercial banks offer demand deposits (checking accounts)           2. Savings and loan associations used to specialize in time deposits (saving accounts)               and home mortgages. Now, because of deregulation during the early 1980's, they               are similar to commercial banks.       B. Federal deregulation contributed to banking difficulties in the 1980's.      C. Visit History provided by the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis for a time line of the U.S.           banking System. Be sure to point at each date to see what happens during that period. V. A Brief History of U S Banking Problems       and The Essence of Money, a Medieval Tale (7:36) provide a little more interesting history.	Check out AP Macroeconomics Review Materials!

VI. The Federal Reserve System       A. Organization Chart                1. Board of Governors oversee the Federal Reserve System              a. Seven governors              b. Governors are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate.              c. The chair is appointed by the President for a four-year term.                  1)  To foster independence, the term does not coincide with the President's                       term.                     2) Other board members are appointed to 14-year terms on a staggered                        basis to insure an experienced board.              2. Federal Open Market Committee                  a. Membership consists of the Board of Governors and 5 of the 12 Federal                      Reserve bank presidents with the N.Y. president always a member                       because N.Y. City is the financial center for U.S. international trade.                  b. The Committee tries to affect interest rates by affecting the supply of                      money by buying and selling U.S. government bonds (See Chapter 15).              3. Federal Advisory Council 12 prominent commercial bankers, one from                  each district, who advise the Board of Governors              4. Twelve Federal Reserve Banks                   a. The United States is divided into 12 homogenous districts and each                       has its own bank                  b. Bank for the federal government                  c. Bank for member banks                  d. Graphic is complements of the Board of Governors of the Federal                      Reserve System.             5. Member commercial banks             6. Nonmember commercial banks and thrifts are regulated by other                 government agencies.
B. Functions of the Federal Reserve             1. Regulate the money supply             3. Oversea the financial system             4. Check collection and clearing             5. Fiscal agent for the government             6. Supervise (audit) member banks              7. Hold reserves (deposits) for member banks             8. Compile economic statistics such as the 2010 BeigeBook, which is                 a quarterly summary of each districts' recent economic activity.             9. Many Federal Reserve publications are free.         C. The Federal Reserve System Purposes and Functions         D. History              1. ANDREW JACKSON took on the eastern bankers, vetoed                   the charter extension of the Second Bank of the United States                  because he felt it had excessive power over farmers.              2. THEODORE ROOSEVELT took on the corporate monopoly                  Trusts that control railroad rates and routes and thus destroyed                  small towns and farms.          E.  Current Events Readings              1. Philadelphia Reflections: Whither, Federal Reserve? is a wel                l done, concise history of banking in the United States.              2. The Real Threat to Fed Independence Henry Kaufman, Wall                   Street Journal. The financial giant cuts the industry no slack.                  3. The Current Events Internet Library has many up-to-date economic                  articles.	Free Political Science Book Summaries Presidential Courage Brave Leaders and How They Changed America 1789-1989,  by Michael Beschloss , 8 pages, or  Buy this Book  Second Chance Three Presidents and the Crisis of America Superpower,  by Zbigniew Brzezinski,  6 pages, or Buy this Book American Dynasty Aristocracy, Fortune, and the Politics of Deceit in the House of Bush,  by Kevin Phillips  5 pages, or  Buy the Book Don't Know Much About History  Everything You Need To Know About American History But Never Learned,   5 pages, or Buy the Book

 

VII. Recent Developments         A. Banks and thrifts are the only institutions whose checking accounts are not              restricted as to check size and number             1. The Financial Institutions Reform, Recovery and Enforcement Act of 1989,                  liberalized banking laws, caused a declined in their importance although                  reforms resulting from the Great Recession of 2008 cold change this.             2. Consolidation has caused their numbers to decline and their size to increase.             3. Many bank/thrift services are now performed by insurance companies,                  pension, and securities companies.         B. Globalization of financial markets.         C. Some politicians think the Federal Reserve system is too independent.                 1. Congress Is Politicizing the Fed Jan 25, 2010              2. Central bank independence versus inflation.                  This often cited  [49] research published by Alesina and Summers (1993)[50]                       is used to show why it is important for a nation's central bank (i.e.-monetary                  authority) to have a high level of independence. This chart shows a clear                  trend towards a lower inflation rate as the independence of the central bank                  increases. The generally agreed upon reason independence leads to lower                  inflation is that politicians have a tendency to create too much money if given                  the opportunity to do it.[50] The Federal Reserve System in the United States                  is generally regarded as one of the more independent central banks.

VIII. The fractional reserve system and the creation of money          A. Commercial banks are required to keep a reserve (cash) of about 12% of their               demand deposits (checking accounts) at their bank or on deposit with the                Federal Reserve (required reserves). The remainder, (Excess Reserves)                 may be loaned out even though they support deposits.          B. Money is created by these loans as long as the demand deposits (DD) created               by them stay within the banking system, that is, the money loaned is redeposit               as a DD into a bank within the system. The banks owe the demand deposits               created by the loans to each other. These inter-brain debts  are canceled with               a bookkeeping entry. It should be pointed out that the demand deposits                created by such loans are spent, and goods transferred, just as if the                transaction involved   currency.          C. Example: Bank A has $50,000 in demand deposits. A reserve requirement of               10% would yield required reserves of .10 x $50,000 = $5,000. If Bank A                had $7,000 in reserve, it could loan up to $2,000 in the form of demand                deposits. Suppose Bank B does exactly the same with both banks' customers               depositing their DD in the other bank. Banks would owe cashed checks to                each other, would cancel interbank debts, and money  has been created.          D. The system works in reverse with money destroyed if reserves leave the system.          E. Required reserves, reserves not loaned, and loans of cash (reserves) represent               a leakage which eventually stops money supply growth.

IX. The monetary multiplier        A. An infusion of reserves into the system by the Treasury as directed by the             Federal Reserve can be loaned a number of times by the commercial             banking system. For example, the Federal Reserve may buy a $100             Treasury bond from Ms. A who deposits the Federal Reserve check            (reserves) into Bank A.         B. Bank A's new DD of $100 requires them to keep $10 (10%) in reserve             leaving $90 excess to loan to Mr. B who deposits it in Bank B.        C. Bank B needs to keep only $9 ($90 x .1) in reserve and may loan out $81.         D. This process continues and as long as the demand deposits being created             by the loans stay within the commercial              banking system, interbank debts are canceled and money has been created        E. Monetary multiplier (M) sets the upper limit of the expansion            1. R = reserve requirement = 10% = .1            2. M = 1/R = 1/.1 = 10        F. In the above example the total amount of DD created beginning with Bank            A's $90 in excess reserves would equal             Excess Reserves x M = $90 x 10 = $900. If the $100 infusion by the             Federal Reserve is included, the increase is 10 x 100 = $1,000.        G. Visit The Banking System and the Money Multiplier from Jay Kaplan             of the University of Colorado at Boulder for more information.  X. Additional reading          1. Money creation - Wikipedia          2. Banks Create Money          3. A Brief History of U S Banking Problems          4. A 9-page summer read for historical context in understanding the history             of monetary policy: the famous Wizard of Oz book is economic allegory/satire             on who will create US money: federal government as "money" or a central bank             as "debt." This issue was the foundation for the "Greenback Party," "Populist Party,"             "free silver," and William Jennings Bryan's three presidential campaigns (and "Cross              of Gold" speech):  or a film version of this allegory, The Secret of Oz can be             viewed online (winner of two international awards as Best Documentary for 2010)          5 The Nixon Shock rom Business Week 8/14/11             How Nixon stopped backing the dollar with gold and changed global finance,             a 40-year-old decision that still echoes in Greece, Ireland, and the U.S.          6. Buttonwood, Forty yeas on from 8/11 of Economist Magazine

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